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Religious Elements in James Joyce's Ulysses

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Jesus Christ

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Leopold Bloom and Stephen Dedalus are both Christ figures. In "Cyclops", Bloom is crucified by the Citizen and resurrected by the narrator. In "Circe", Stephen is crucified by Private Carr and resurrected by Bloom.[1]

Thomas Aquinas

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In "Telemachus", Malachi "Buck" Mulligan claims that Stephen's Hamlet theory draws on Thomas Aquinas, and in the Library episode he reveals that Stephen consulted the Summa contra Gentiles.[2] Joyce apparently owned three copies. One was an English abridgment with annotations, which he purchased in Trieste in 1913–14.[2] This book, which he told Ezra Pound he had consulted on his behalf,[3] was Joseph Rickaby's Of God and His Creatures.[4]

Shortly after his Hamlet theory is mentioned in "Telemachus", Stephen thinks of Christological doctrines that Aquinas has discussed in the Summa: the Catholic doctrine of consubstantiality and the heresies of Sabellius, Photius, Arius, and Valentine. In explaining his Hamlet theory, Stephen refers to both consubstantiality and the heresy of Sabellius.

Consubstantiality

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According to Catholic doctrine, the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost are separate persons sharing the same nature.[5] Joyce and Stephen are spiritually consubstantial.[6] In "Telemachus", Stephen juxtaposes the Christological doctrines with the "Symbol [creed] of the apostles in the mass for pope Marcellus". In fact, the Nicene Creed, not the Apostles' Creed, is sung or recited during Mass. The Apostles' Creed reflects the doctrine of consubstantiality, and so applies to Stephen.[7]

Heresy of Photius

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Stephen is also Joyce's voice in Ulysses. The schism between the Latin and Greek Churches, for which Photius was mainly responsible, was due to the Filioque clause in the Nicene Creed.[8] The Greek Church rejected the clause. The result, according to Aquinas, is that the Son and the Holy Ghost are held to be the same person. At the Baptism, the Holy Ghost is identified with the voice of God the Father.[9] Through Stephen, Joyce again delivers his 1912 lectures on Hamlet.

Sabellianism

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Sabellius taught that the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost are not separate persons but manifestations of a single divine being.[10] Joyce and Bloom are the same person.[6] In "Calypso", Bloom defines "Metempsychosis ... the transmigration of souls." In "Lotus Eaters", the words of Consecration, "This is my body", identify him as Joyce's literary reincarnation.[11] Just before mentally reciting his parody of the Apostles' Creed in the Library episode, Stephen thinks of Photius, Mulligan, and the German anarchist Johann Most. Mulligan's "Ballad of Joking Jesus" is also a parody of the Apostles' Creed.[12] Most is the immediate source for Stephen's parody.[13][14] Photius is a reminder that Stephen is Joyce's voice in Ulysses. Stephen's parody reflects the Sabellian heresy, and so applies to Bloom.[15]

In "Circe", Bloom and Stephen share the apparition of Shakespeare, who speaks "in dignified ventriloquy". As Joyce's reincarnation, Bloom is also his voice. His views accord with Joyce's.[16] For example, he advocates "love ... the opposite of hatred".[17]

As narratives of Christ's mission, both the Apostles' Creed and Stephen's parody end with the Last Judgment, the Second Coming of Christ. In Ulysses, not only are Bloom and Stephen both Christ figures, but the first coming of Christ is intertwined with the second. Bloom and Stephen not only endure but pass judgment.

Arianism

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Arius held that the Son is "one with God the Father, [but] not by nature".[18] For Arius, the Father-Son relation is one of adoption, like Bloom's with Stephen.[19][20] In "Circe", the unconscious Stephen is Christ, crucified by a soldier—his arms outstretched, "no bones broken",[21] his ashplant symbolizing the Cross.[22] Prostate, he awaits resurrection. Bloom's solicitousness signifies his "adoption" of Stephen. The Arians believed that the Son could complete his mission only with the Father's help.[23] Bloom is about to get Stephen back on his feet.

Heresy of Valentine

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In "Oxen of the Sun", Stephen declares, "[Either] transubstantiality [or] consubstantiality but in no case subsubstantiality." The terms refer to opposing doctrines on the Incarnation.[24] The first is obviously a coinage formed from transubstantiation. In A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, the priest is said to make "the great God of heaven come down upon the altar and take the form of bread and wine".[25] Sabellius held that the Father became his own Son when, born of the Virgin Mary, He took human form.[18] Transubstantiality refers to the Sabellian heresy and to Bloom, Joyce in another body. Consubstantiality, on Stephen's list of doctrines in "Telemachus", refers here to the view that Christ is both divine and human.[26]

In "Ithaca", Bloom is said to be his parents' "transubstantial heir" and Stephen the "consubstantial heir" of his. Like the Sabellian Christ, Bloom is both a son and a father, while Stephen, like the consubstantial Christ, is only a son. The theological terms are a late reminder of Joyce's double presence in Ulysses. Bloom is his "transubstantial heir", the mature Joyce reincarnated, and Stephen his "consubstantial heir", a portrait of the artist as a young man.[27] "Subsubstantiality", Stephen's third term, refers to a Christ who lacks a human body. Stephen's list of heretics in "Telemachus" includes Valentine, a Gnostic who held that the Son only appeared be made flesh.[28] In "Oxen", Stephen illustrates the heresy by imagining a Virgin Mary who never gave birth.[25]

In A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, the Virgin's womb is a metaphor for the imagination.[29] Stephen's first two doctrines allude to artistic re-embodiment. "Subsubstantiality" alludes to its absence and so characterizes the apparitions in "Circe", the next chapter.[30] The two exceptions are Stephen's dead mother and Bloom's dead son.[31]

The Sacred Heart of Jesus

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Stephen's mother is also a Christ figure. On 10 June 1904, Joyce met Nora Barnacle for the first time. They met again on 16 June.[32] On both days, the Feast of the Sacred Heart was celebrated in Irish Catholic churches.[33] The feast originated on another 16 June, in 1675. A young nun, Margaret Mary Alacoque, had visions of Christ exposing his heart. During the so-called "great apparition" on that date, he asked that a new feast be established to commemorate his suffering. (In the Library episode, Mulligan calls the nun "Blessed Margaret Mary Anycock!"[34]) The Feast of the Sacred Heart was formally approved in the same year. The Jesuits popularized the devotion, and Ireland was the first nation to dedicate itself to the Sacred Heart.[35]

The ghost of Stephen's mother in "Circe" parallels and opposes the "great apparition" Margret Mary Alacoque experienced on an earlier 16 June. When his mother confronts him, she prays, "O Sacred Heart of Jesus, have mercy on him! Save him from hell, O Divine Sacred Heart." She then identifies herself with the Sacred Heart.[36] The words she uses to do so, "Inexpressible was my anguish when expiring with love, grief and agony on Mount Calvary", paraphrase the most explicit reference to the Crucifixion in the Act of Reparation to the Sacred Heart: "Inconceivable they anguish when expiring with love, grief, and agony, on Mount Calvary."[37] In A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, Stephen declares, "I will not serve that in which I no longer believe whether it call itself my home, my fatherland or my church." The ghost of his mother invoking the Sacred Heart to whom Ireland is dedicated is a composite image of all three.[38] Exclaiming "No!" three times, he acts out his refusal to "repent" by smashing the brothel chandelier.[39]

A sanctuary lamp hangs before the altar where the Eucharist is contained in a tabernacle. It is alluded to in "Grace" as "the red speck of light". When the Eucharist is absent, the sanctuary lamp is extinguished. Stephen raises his stick at the moment his mother's ghost identifies herself with the crucified victim. The apparition combines Mount Calvary and a Dublin church altar. Swinging his stick, Stephen kills Christ and expels the Eucharist.[40]

Mulligan's "Blessed Mary Anycock!" is relevant. Margaret Mary Alacoque's Sacred Heart visions were highly erotic.[41] There are echoes in Molly Bloom's memories of her recent sexual gratification. The young nun repeatedly compares Christ's heart to flame or fire.[42] Molly's lover is nicknamed "Blazes". "Heart" can mean the erect penis. Molly says Boylan "put some heart up into me". She even seems to be unwittingly comparing Boylan's penis to the oversized heart used in Sacred Heart iconography when she calls it "that tremendous big red brute of a thing".[43][44]

The Feast of the Epiphany

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Joyce's concept of epiphany is based on a composite of the Transfiguration and the Baptism of Christ, which in the Easter Church is celebrated on the Feast of the Epiphany.[45] At both the Baptism and the Transfiguration, the Father's consubstantiality with Christ is manifested: the Holy Ghost appears, the Father's voice addressing his son. At the Transfiguration, Christ also becomes radiant. Stephen's apparition both parallels and inverts its source. The Baptism marks the beginning of Christ's future on earth, his mission of crucifixion and resurrection, both of which Stephen will soon undergo. The ghost of Stephen's mother identifies him as her son and he turns "white". But while the Father is "well-pleased" with his son, Stephen's mother is very disappointed in hers.

Juxtaposed are Christ's sacrifice and Satan's defiance, the one imaging Stephen's guilt, the other his desire to live and create freely. Stephen refuses to "Repent", to return to the Church, citing "the intellectual imagination"—his artistic mission—and using Satan's words, non serviam. His mother in turn identifies herself with Christ, making mother and son archetypal adversaries. Stephen's lamp-smashing gives physical form to his rejection of Catholicism and initiates a future of his own choosing.[40]

The Eucharist

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In Catholicism, "Eucharist" refers to both the act of Consecration, or transubstantiation and its product. [46] Bread and wine are said to be replaced by the body and blood of Christ, appearances notwithstanding.[47] Ulysses begins with a parody of the Eucharist. The setting is the Martello tower, where Stephen has been staying with Buck Mulligan and Haines, an Englishman.

Stately, plump Buck Mulligan came from the stairhead, bearing a bowl of lather on which a mirror and a razor lay crossed. A yellow dressinggown, ungirdled, was sustained gently behind him on the mild morning air. He held the bowl aloft and intoned:

—Introibo ad altare Dei

The Latin is the first line the priest speaks in the Mass. (In 1904, it was said in Latin.) The liturgical items and actions represented have been identified, if not uniformly.[48][49][50] The most obvious correspondence is between Mulligan's shaving bowl and the chalice of sacramental wine. That the shaving implements are crossed is a reminder that the Eucharist is meant to be the crucified Christ. Mulligan's shaving mirror is the paten, the small metal plate, originally made of glass, that holds the host to be consecrated.[51] His dressing gown is the alb, the long white tunic the priest wears at Mass.[52] The alb signifies the priest's purity and innocence.[53] Mulligan's gown is yellow . The alb is secured around the waste by a cincture, or girdle.[54] It symbolizes the priest's chastity and continence.[53] Mulligan's gown is "ungirdled."

The most striking feature of Mulligan's parody is the change to the words of transubstantiation, "This is my body," "This is my blood."

—For this, O dearly beloved, is the genuine Christine: body and soul and blood and ouns.

As he did in "The Sisters", the first Dubliners story, Joyce has replaced the Latin rite with a homely simulacrum.[55] Father Flynn's chalice "contained nothing", an illusory Christ, while Mulligan's holds the genuine Christine, a flesh and blood replacement. Mulligan's parody sets the tone for the treatment of the Eucharist throughout the novel. Equating a female Christ with the consecrated wine establishes the role Dublin women will play.[56]

Leopold Bloom encounters the Eucharist in "Lotus Eaters". He enters All Hallows church during Communion. An informed believer would doubt his senses and imagine the body and blood of Christ. Bloom sees only bread and wine. His perspective constitutes a prolonged act of de-Consecration. On the Sandymount strand in "Nausicaa", he encounters the Eucharist again. A Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament is taking place in a nearby church dedicated to Our Lady as Star of the Sea. There are the parallels between Gerty MacDowell and the Virgin Mary. Both the Virgin and the Eucharist are being adored in the church.[57] The Mirus bazaar, where the fireworks are launched, is linked to the bazaar in "Araby".[58] Like Mangan's sister in "Araby",[59] Gerty conflates Virgin and Eucharist into a single sexual object of worship. At the Benediction, the Eucharist is exposed to view so it can be adored. Gerty exposes herself to Bloom to sexually excite him, creating another object of worship. Bloom is touching his erect penis while the priest has the Eucharist "in his hands".[60]

That Bloom has mistaken the Benediction for a Mass creates a parallel between his orgasm and the act of transubstantiation. His masturbation caricatures the Catholic belief that Christ himself has his body in his hands at the Consecration of the bread. Bloom reflects that he's glad he didn't masturbate in the bath ("Lotus Eaters"). His bathing corresponds to the Lavabo, the priest's ritual washing of his hands to prepare for the transubstantiation of the bread.[61] He did speak the words of Consecration, "This is my body." The act itself has been delayed till now. In the Mass the Elevation of the Eucharist follows the Consecration. Human physiology demands that Bloom's penis be elevated first.

The words of Consecration come at the end of the Eucharistic prayer. The prayer for Holy Thursday begins with a reference to the Last Supper: Christ, "on the day before He suffered, took bread into His holy and venerable hands." Bloom is touching himself. (Gerty thinks of him as "a man of inflexible honour to his fingertips".) The prayer continues, "and [Christ] having raised His eyes to heaven". Gerty bends so far back she trembles. Bloom "had a full view high up above her knee where no-one ever not even on the swing or wading and she wasn't ashamed and he wasn't either to look in that immodest way like that because he couldn't resist the sight of the wondrous revealment". (Her knickers are made of "nainsook", "a fine soft cotton fabric. It is a Hindi word that translates as 'eyes' delight".)

Gerty also masturbates and her orgasm also parallels the act of transubstantiation. Christ himself has the chalice of his blood in his hands at the Consecration of the wine ("This is the chalice of my blood ... which will be poured out for you"). Blamires calls Gerty "a 'vessel' now holding the blood soon to be spilt".[62] Elevation also precedes Consecration. Premenstrual Gerty "leaned back far to look up where the fireworks were and she caught her knee in her hands so as not to fall back looking up". The fireworks climax as both Bloom and Gerty do: "and O! then the Roman candle burst and it was like a sigh of O! and everyone cried O! O! in raptures ... O so lovely, O, soft, sweet, soft!"[63]

Gerty may experience "imaginary consummation",[64] but her orgasm is real.[65][66] "As she leans further and further backward, ostensibly to view the Roman candles overhead, she is 'trembling in every limb' and the pressure of her 'nainsook knickers, the fabric that caresses the skin,' contributes to an orgasm that mimics the bursts of color rising in the evening sky."[67]

Mulligan feminized the Eucharist at the beginning of Ulysses with his Consecration parody. Gerty is the novel's first manifestation of "the genuine Christine". She prefigures Molly Bloom on her chamberpot.[68] When Gerty has gone, Bloom thinks, "Near her monthlies, I expect." At the Consecration, Catholics believe, bread and wine are replaced by the body and blood of Christ, appearances notwithstanding. In "Nausicaa", Christ's imagined body is replaced by real human flesh, his imagined blood by real human blood.[69] That orgasm has supplanted transubstantiation through masturbation, forbidden by the Church, completes Joyce's triumph over it.

"This is ... the genuine Christine", Mulligan's parody of the transubstantiation at the beginning of the book, prophecies the replacement of the Eucharist and a woman's body and blood. The prophecy is fulfilled by Gerty and, to a greater extent, by Molly Bloom.[70] Like Gerty and Mangan's sister in "Araby", Molly conflates the Eucharist with the Virgin Mary. Her first name is Marion and she was born on 8 September, the Virgin's birthday. Like Gerty, she has had an orgasm with Bloom, remembered at the very end of her monologue.[71][70] She is the ultimate manifestation of Joyce's feminized, sexualized Eucharist.[72] Her blood is also genuine, unlike the supposed blood in the chalice. She wholly supplants the Eucharist. In the Mass, the wine to be consecrated is mingled with water.[73] Molly's urine mixing with her blood creates an exact parallel with the contents of the chalice.

A "perpetual lamp" hangs before the altar where a tabernacle contains the Eucharist.[74] This lamp is alluded to in "Grace" as "the red speck of light". In "Ithaca", "the mystery of an invisible attractive person ... Marion (Molly) Bloom, [is] denoted by a visible splendid sign, a lamp". Prefigured is her replacement of the Eucharist in the following episode.[44]

The Greek Orthodox Church

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Joyce was familiar with the Greek Orthodox liturgy.[55] Stephen reacts to Mulligan's performance by thinking of him as "Chrysostomos", an Orthodox priest and the author of a liturgy. (The Greek Orthodox also believe in the doctrine of transubstantiation.) Mulligan resembles a Greek Orthodox priest in his approach to transubstantiation. His razor represents the symbolically named "holy lance", the knife Greek priests use to cut the bread to be consecrated.[75] The final words of his service are "Switch off the current, will you?"[76] Across Dublin Bay is the city's power station, the Pigeon House. The dove or pigeon is a traditional symbol of the Holy Ghost. Joyce called Dubliners "a series of epicleti", alluding to the act of transubstantiation.[77] The Greek Orthodox believe that the act is complete only with the recitation of the epiclesis, the invocation to God the Father to send down the Holy Spirit to change the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ. It is recited in all Greek liturgies, including the Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostomos.[78] The epiclesis includes all three members of the Trinity in the act of transubstantiation.

The Black Mass

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Satanists and Protestants have waged open war on the Catholic Church and made the Eucharist their primary target. The former believe in transubstantiation, but seek to desecrate its product.[79] The latter deny that the consecrated bread and wine are the body and blood of Christ. The climax of "Circe" is an apparitional black mass celebrated by a Satanic priest with the help of a Protestant minister. Stephen Dedalus and the Englishman Haines were witnesses to Mulligan's mockery of the Eucharist at the beginning of the novel ("This is . . . the genuine Christine"). Stephen's unconscious embellishes it, with versions of Mulligan and Haines as participants.

The black mass was celebrated on a woman's naked body.[80] In "Circe", it is that of the pregnant Mrs Purefoy from "Oxen of the Sun". Father Malachi O'Flynn conflates Malachi Mulligan with Father O'Flynn, a Catholic priest from "Lestrygonians". (The black mass required an ordained priest to perform the act of transubstantiation.[81]) The Reverend Mr Haines Love conflates the Englishman Haines with the Protestant clergyman Hugh C Love from "Wandering Rocks". O'Flynn's "lace petticoat" indicates a gender inversion, which along with the anatomical and sartorial inversions signifies the central black mass reversal: "Satan is worshiped and Jesus Christ is cursed."[82]

In "Telemachus", Mulligan quotes the first words of the Mass, Introibo ad altare dei. Here they are altered for a black mass: Introibo ad altare diaboli. By lifting O'Flynn's "lace petticoat" as transubstantiation is enacted, The Reverend Love is expressing the Protestant view that "my body" can be meant only literally. The anal carrot is an obvious phallic symbol, and the "way the Reverend Love reveals [it] under O'Flynn's petticoat suggests a homosexual relationship."[83] Among the black mass inversions is a sexual one.

In the black mass, "the abuse of the host seems to constitute the sacrifice to the devil".[84] O'Flynn's act of transubstantiation is simultaneously an act of desecration. His host is "blooddripping". Like Catholics, Satanists believe that Christ's body is present in the host. Like Catholics guilty of the heresy of "sensualism", Satanists believe that the consecrated host gives direct contact with Christ's crucified body. Desecration can take the form of further physical torture.[85]

The Catholic belief that Christ is in both the consecrating priest and the Eucharist results in the desecration of O'Flynn's own body. That he has been feminized and sexualized in a parody of intercourse links him to Mrs Purefoy. In the medieval black mass a "woman was both altar and sacrifice".[86] An umbrella is used to protect the Eucharist during Catholic ceremonies.[87] The "open umbrella" held over O'Flynn is also symbolically a prophylactic.[88]

  1. ^ Lang 1993, pp. 88–91.
  2. ^ a b Lang 1993, p. 69.
  3. ^ Lang 1993, pp. 68–69.
  4. ^ Aquinas, Thomas (1905). Of God and His Creatures: An English Translation of Summa contra Gentiles. London: Burnes & Oates. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
  5. ^ Aquinas 1905, p. 396.
  6. ^ a b Lang 1993, p. 81.
  7. ^ Lang 1993, pp. 75–76, 80–81.
  8. ^ Lang 1993, p. 70.
  9. ^ Aquinas 1905, p. 408.
  10. ^ Aquinas 1905, p. 394. n884.
  11. ^ Lang 1993, p. 139.
  12. ^ Lang 1993, pp. 157–59.
  13. ^ Managaniello, Dominic (1980). Joyce's Politics. London: Routledge. pp. 101–02. ISBN 978-0-7100-0537-3. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
  14. ^ Lang 1993, pp. 155–56.
  15. ^ Lang 1993, p. 155.
  16. ^ Kenner, Hugh (1979). Joyce's Voices. University of California Press. p. 23. ISBN 0520039351. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
  17. ^ Lang 1993, p. 84.
  18. ^ a b Aquinas 1905, p. 394.
  19. ^ Kenner 1955, p. 252.
  20. ^ Duncan, Edward (January 1950). "Unsubstantial Father: A Study of the 'Hamlet' Symbolism in Joyce's 'Ulysses'". University of Toronto Quarterly. 19 (2): 137. doi:10.3138/utq.19.2.126. Retrieved 20 March 2024.
  21. ^ Blamires 1966, p. 206.
  22. ^ Blamires 1966, p. 207.
  23. ^ Lang 1993, p. 90.
  24. ^ Ellmann 1972, p. 139.
  25. ^ a b Lang 1993, p. 80.
  26. ^ Lang 1993, p. 76.
  27. ^ Lang 1993, pp. 263–65.
  28. ^ Lang 1993, pp. 70–71.
  29. ^ Lang 1993, pp. 60–61.
  30. ^ Ellmann, Richard (1977). The Consciousness of Joyce. Oxford University Press. p. 70. ISBN 0195199502. Retrieved 27 March 2024.
  31. ^ Ellmann 1977, p. 70.
  32. ^ Ellmann 1982, p. 156.
  33. ^ Lang 1993, p. 99-100.
  34. ^ Lang 1993, p. 93.
  35. ^ Lang 1993, pp. 94–95.
  36. ^ Lang 1993, p. 92.
  37. ^ Devotions to the Sacred Heart of Jesus (Trans. from the French and rev. by the Rev. Joseph Joy Dean ed.). Dublin: Richard Grace. 1841. p. 305.
  38. ^ Lang 1993, pp. 98–99.
  39. ^ Lang 1993, p. 97.
  40. ^ a b Lang 1993, pp. 230–33.
  41. ^ Life of Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque, written by herself, trans. The Sisters of the Visitation. Roseland, Walmer, Kent: Visitation Library. 1952. pp. 53, 67–68. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
  42. ^ Life of Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque, written by herself, trans. The Sisters of the Visitation. Roseland, Walmer, Kent: Visitation Library. 1952. pp. 69, 70, 95, 113. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
  43. ^ Lang 1993, pp. 103–04.
  44. ^ a b Lang 1993, p. 104.
  45. ^ Lang 1993, pp. 51–52.
  46. ^ Lercaro 1959, pp. 104–105.
  47. ^ Boyle, S.J., Boyle (Fall 1972). "Miracle in Black Ink: A Glance at Joyce's Use of His Eucharistic Image". James Joyce Quarterly. 10 (1): 48.
  48. ^ Kenner 1955, p. 44.
  49. ^ Briand, Jr, Paul L. (Summer 1968). "The Catholic Mass in James Joyce's "Ulysses"". James Joyce Quarterly. 5 (4): 313. JSTOR 25486726. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
  50. ^ Lang 1993, p. 114.
  51. ^ Lercaro 1959, p. 192.
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  54. ^ Lercaro 1959, pp. 76, 123.
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  56. ^ Lang 1993, p. 129.
  57. ^ Blamires 1966, pp. 139–144.
  58. ^ Mullin, Katherine (4 November 2011). "'Something in the Name of Araby': James Joyce and the Irish Bazaars". Dublin James Joyce Journal. 4: 31–50. doi:10.1353/djj.2011.0009.
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  60. ^ Lang 1993, pp. 170–72.
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  65. ^ Hitchens, Christopher (May 2011). "Joyce in Bloom". Vanity Fair.
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  67. ^ Sicker, Philip (Summer 2003). "Unveiling Desire: Pleasure, Power and Masquerade in Joyce's 'Nausicaa' Episode". Joyce Studies Annual. 14: 93. doi:10.1353/joy.2004.0009. JSTOR 26285205. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
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  77. ^ Atherton 1966, p. 34.
  78. ^ Lercaro 1959, p. 102.
  79. ^ van Luijk, Ruben (2017). "A Brief History of the Catholic Mass," Sanctifying Texts, Transforming Rituals. Brill. pp. 280–81. ISBN 978-9004347083.
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  83. ^ Gose Jr, Elliott B. (1980). The Transformation Process in Joyce's "Ulysses. University of Toronto Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-1-4875-9770-2.
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  88. ^ Lang 1993, p. 238.
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