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Flowchart to determine if an occupation should be included in the list of obsolete occupations

This is a list of obsolete occupations: A–M. To be included in this list an occupation must be completely, or to a great extent, obsolete. For example, there are still a few lamplighters retained for ceremonial or tourist purposes, but in the main the occupation is now obsolete. Similarly, there are still some manual switchboard operators and elevator operators which are required for historic equipment or security reasons, but these are now considered to be obsolete occupations. Occupations which appear to be obsolete in industrialized countries may still be carried out commercially in other parts of the world, for example charcoal burner.

To be included in this list an obsolete occupation should in the past have employed significant numbers of workers (hundreds or thousands as evidenced by, for example, census data).[1][2] Some rare occupations are included in this list, but only if they have notable practitioners, for example alchemist or phrenologist.

Terms which describe groups of people carrying out a variety of roles, but which are not specific occupations, are excluded from this list even if they are obsolete, for example conquistador or retinue. Terms describing positions which have a modern equivalent, and are thus not obsolete occupations, are excluded from this list, for example a dragoman would now be termed a diplomat; similarly a cunning woman would now be termed a practitioner of folk medicine. Terms describing a state of being rather than an occupation are excluded, for example castrato. Specialist terms for an occupation, even if they are obsolete, are excluded, for example the numerous historic terms for cavalry and courtesan. Foreign language terms for existing occupations are excluded, for example korobeinik or Laukkuryssä which are types of peddler. All types of forced labour, such as slavery and penal labour are excluded from this list as they are not paid occupations.

Only occupations which are notable, well-defined, and adequately documented in secondary sources are included in this list.

Reasons for occupations to become obsolete

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  • Technological/scientific/process efficiency change,[3][4] for example making lime in factories on a large scale rather than by lime-burners on a small scale. Another example is the continuous changes in occupations in the textile industry in the 19th century caused by mechanization.[5]: 247  In recent times, the workplace impact of artificial intelligence has arisen as a concern for widespread job changes and/or decline.[6][7]
  • Cultural/fashion change, for example hoop skirt and crinoline manufacturers were significant employers in the 1850s and 1860s but they declined significantly in later years as fashions changed.[8]
  • Safety/security change, for example climbing boys became politically unacceptable because of the danger to children involved in the job.[9]
  • Social change, e.g. the Workhouse as a way of dealing with the poor, or the elimination of much child labour so that they could attend school.[10]
  • Debunked as pseudoscience, for example phrenologists[11]: 266 [12]: 137 
  • Environmental change: over-farming, over-exploitation and deforestation. For example, the trading of ivory has become heavily restricted over recent decades, especially in the Western world, following the international CITES agreement and local legislation, which has put ivory carvers out of work.[13]
  • Legal/regulatory change, for example the Victorian-era law that made available more cadavers to medical schools, thus signalling the death-knell to body snatchers;[14] or the passing of the 18th (1919) and 21st (1933) amendments to the US constitution leading to the rise and fall of the bootlegger trade.[15]

List of obsolete occupations

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The table lists information about obsolete occupations

Occupation: name of the occupation
Group: occupational group from the 1900 US Census[16]
Agric. - Agricultural pursuits
Manuf. - Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits
Pers. - Domestic and personal service
Profes. - Professional service
Trade - Trade and transportation
Description: description of the occupation
Reason: reason for occupation becoming obsolete
Start: century that the occupation started, for example -3 indicates 3rd century BC and -99 indicates prehistoric
End: century that the occupation ended, for example 15 indicates 15th century AD
Image: image of the occupation

Key:    Common occupation      Rare occupation  

Occupation Group Description Reason Start End Image
Alchemist Profes. Alchemists attempted to create and purify certain materials. Common aims were the transmutation of "base metals" (e.g., lead) into "noble metals" (particularly gold); the creation of an elixir of immortality; and the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease. The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Alchemy was pushed aside by chemistry by the middle of the 18th century.[17] 3[18]: 10  20 The Alchemist in Search of the Philosopher's Stone, by Joseph Wright, 1771
Alewife Trade An alewife, also brewess[19]: 21, 87  or brewster,[20] was a woman who brewed, and often also sold, ale as a trade. The word alewife is first recorded in England in c. 1400[21]. Women have been active in brewing since ancient times. In medieval times men entered the brewing trade previously dominated by women. Unlike women, men had the legal, capital, social, and cultural resources to command a quickly commercializing industry.[20]: 75  -70 17 Mother Louse, a notorious alewife in Oxford during the mid 17th century, by David Loggan
Alnager Profes. An alnager was an official responsible for the inspection of the shape and quality of manufactured woolen cloth. Their duty was to measure each piece of cloth, and to affix a stamp to show that it was of the necessary size and quality.[22] Some alnagers collected their fees without carrying out their inspections, and some accepted bribes to pass inferior cloth. The alnage system was eventually abolished for being corrupt and ineffective.[23] 12 18 Lead cloth alnage seal
Armourer (chain mail) Manuf. Armourers constructed chain mail by riveting together iron or steel rings. Chain mail was more flexible and less tailored to an individual than the later plate armour. For the wealthy, plate armour was preferred to chain mail as it provided better protection, however chain mail continued to be used by other soldiers until modern firemans rendered it ineffective in preventing serious injury.[24] -3 17 Chain mail armour belonged king Władysław IV Vasa, 17 century
Armourer (plate armour) Manuf. Armourers constructed a suit of armour by fitting armour to the individual wearer like a tailor. A full suit of high quality fitted armour was very expensive and restricted their clientele exclusively to the wealthy. The development of powerful firearms made all but the finest and heaviest plate armour obsolete.[25] 14 17 Plate armourer by Meno Mühlig - Dorotheum, Wien
Between maid Pers. A between maid (or 'tweeny') combined the duties of a housemaid with those of a kitchen maid. She was the most junior member of staff and did all of the least desirable jobs. [26]: 22, 72, 197 [27]: 38  The between maid was paid the least of all the domestic staff.[26]: 151  The reduction in domestic staffs and the availability of better paid and more desirable employment ended the occupation. 14 20 Servants hall: room which servants used as a base; it is next to the kitchen and also has easy access to the rest of the house
Buckle-maker Manuf. Buckle-makers made metal buckles for shoes and other uses. Separate buckles remained fashionable until they were abandoned in the years after the French Revolution.[8]: 322 [28] 17 19 William Taylor, buckle-maker, trade card
Cavalryman Profes. A cavalryman was a soldier who fought mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century, cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms. The first engagements of World War I showed that cavalry were ineffective against modern infantry and artillery. During the 20th century all cavalry, apart from ceremonial units, were phased out or mechanized.[29]: 250  -15 20 Ottoman sipahi
Coach-maker Manuf. A coach-maker was a person who constructed horse-drawn passenger-carrying vehicles.[30] Typically the wheels for the coach or carriage were made separately by a wheelright. When horse-drawn coaches were superseded by motor cars and coaches, the number of coach-makers greatly reduced, and their number shrank to very small numbers when handmade motor coachwork gave way to mass-produced vehicles.[31] 14 20 Coach-maker from The book of trades, or, Library of the useful arts. Part II 1811
Coachman Trade A coachman was an employee who drove a coach or carriage, a horse-drawn vehicle designed for the conveyance of passengers. A coachman could be assisted by a footman or a postilion. In the 20th century cars and buses replaced horse-drawn coaches making the occupation of coachman obsolete except for ceremonial and tourist purposes.[32]: 173  14 20 People of Berlin of the 19th century by Christian Wilhelm Allers, omnibus coachman, 1890
Computer Trade A (human) computer performed calculations for mathematical tables, in astronomy, in weather forecasting and other fields.[33] Some computers transitioned to being programmers.[34] As calculators, and later (machine) computers, became more prevalent (human) computers were replaced as being slower, more expensive, and more prone to error. 17 20 A human computer in the control room at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory tracks Mariner 2
Cooper Manuf. A cooper was a craftsman who produced wooden casks, barrels, and other similar containers from timber staves.[35][36] The demand for wooden barrels for beer fell after the 1940s, as they were replaced by metal drums and glass bottles. This led to a large decline in the need for coopers.[36]: 175–177  -26 20 A cooper readies or rounds off the end of a barrel using a cooper's hand adze
Cork-cutter Manuf. A cork-cutter cut bottle corks (and other items such as flotation devices) from sheets of cork.[37]: 75  In the middle of the 19th century mechanization of the cork cutting process rendered individual cork cutting uneconomic.[38] 17 19[39] Cork-cutter The book of trades, or, Library of the useful arts. Part III 1807
Dog whipper Profes. A dog whipper was a church official who removed unruly dogs from church grounds during services. They were most prominent in areas of England and continental Europe.[40][41]: 125  As bringing dogs to religious services became less acceptable, and with the later advent of animal shelters, this job became obsolete.[42]: 12  16 19 An olden time dog whipper and sluggard wakener (1882)
Drummer (military) Profes. A drummer was responsible for the military drums used on the battlefield. Drums, often accompanied by fifers, were used for the men to march in step, and were also used to signal different commands from officers to troops.[43]: 19  In 1914 drums were still in use by the Austro-Hungarian army. The unsuitability of drums for modern warfare was quickly realised and in September 1914 the drums were withdrawn, and the drummers transferred to other duties.[44] 13[Note 1] 20 Battle of Balaclava Drummer Boy, an 1854 painting by English artist Richard Buckner
Drysalter Trade A drysalter was a dealer in chemical products that were used in other local occupations, especially the dyeing of cloth.[45][46] They might also have sold pickles, dried meat or related items.[47] As local manufacturing businesses consolidated into larger regional factories[48]: 83 , the need for local supply by drysalters declined, leading to the occupation becoming obsolete. 18 20 Braithwaite Yard, site of a drysalter in England
Elevator operator Trade An elevator operator ran a manually operated elevator. Elevator operators still work in some historic or specialist installations and fill modern niches, such as in luxury hotels and Japanese department stores.[49] The introduction of automated elevators combined with operator strikes led to the almost complete elimination of elevator operators.[50] 19 20 Elevator girl, Martha Washington Hotel in 1917
Elocutionist Profes. An elocutionist was a speaker, entertainer, and teacher of elocution. The elocutionist's performances featured the reading of passages from literature with appropriate gestures. Elocutionists started to fall into disrepute at the end of the 19th century. Elocution declined because of changing public tastes, a new academic approach to speech, and doubtful practices of less skillful readers and "entertainers".[51]: 491  18 20 Elocutionist 1891 (from The Strand Magazine)
Escheator Profes. 12 20 Coat of Arms of John Wenlock, 1st Baron Wenlock, Escheator of Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire in 1438–9
Expressman Trade 19 20 The Mountain Expressman, wood engraving, 1853
Fifer Profes. Drummer (military)[52] 18 19 A fifer from the French Consular Guard, 1801
Footman Pers. A footman was a male domestic worker employed to wait at table and to ride on, or run beside, his employer's coach or carriage to provide security and assistance with baggage. A footman could perform other duties, such as being a guest's valet, as directed by the butler.[53] Footmen were something of a luxury as they performed a less essential role than the cook, maid or butler. Once a common position in great houses, the footman became much rarer after World War I as fewer households could afford a large staff. The role of footman is now largely a historic one. 14 20[54] Footman in 18th century costume by Edwin Austin Abbey
Garden hermit Pers. A garden hermit was an employee dwelling alone in a small building on the estate of a landowner. The hermit would be contracted to remain on site for a long period, and would be cared for, consulted for advice, or viewed for entertainment.[55] Keeping a garden hermit had practical problems for both the employer and the employee, and went out fashion in the middle of the 19th century. [41]</ref>: 147–149  18 19 Representation of an ornamental hermit in Germany in the late 18th century
Gladiator Profes. -3 5 Mosaic displaying gladiators from the villa at Nennig, Germany, c. 2nd–3rd century AD.
Hall boy Pers. The hall boy was the most junior male member of staff and was assigned the dirtiest and heaviest jobs. He usually slept in the servants' hall.[27]: 41 [56] His female equivalents were the between maid and the scullery maid. Long hours, poor pay and conditions,[57] and better employment opportunities outside domestic service combined to eliminate this occupation. 14 20 Servants' Dining Room, Attingham Park, Shrewsbury, England
Ice cutter Trade An ice cutter collected surface ice from lakes and rivers during the Winter for storage in an ice house. The ice was later delivered to customers by an iceman. The era of widespread mechanical refrigeration and air conditioning technology largely put an end to the ice trade.[58] 17 20 The typhoid germ hunters are after the men who cut ice from polluted waters to sell in New York, New York tribune, March 8, 1903
Iceman Trade An iceman sold or delivered ice from a wagon, cart, or motor-truck. In the Winter many icemen were employed as ice cutters. The introduction of the refrigerator allowed customers to make and store their own ice, so that delivery by an iceman was no longer economic.[58] 17 20 Iceman, Berlin, Germany
Illuminator of manuscripts Profes. An illuminator of manuscripts, sometimes called a limner, created copies of books and manuscripts by lettering and illuminating the text. In the early period the illuminator normally mixed their own pigments.[59][60] With the invention of the printing press, copies of books could be produced more quickly and less expensively than those produced by the scribe and illuminator. This technological change led to the occupation becoming obsolete.[61][62]: 256  -19[61]: 20  16 Manuscript book mural by John White Alexander, 1896
Ivory carver Manuf. Ivory carvers carved animal teeth or tusks, generally by using sharp cutting tools, to produce decorative objects. As ivory-producing species have become endangered through hunting, legislation has reduced the availability of ivory and hence the demand for ivory carvers.[13] -99 20 The ivory carvers Tokyo [Japan]. Photograph taken by Herbert Ponting, c.1907
Keypunch operator Trade Keypunch operators keyed data or programs onto physical media, for example punched cards, so that it could be read by machines, for example computers. Keypunch operators were made obsolete by data entry systems which allowed data and program originators to enter it directly instead of writing it on forms to be entered by keypunch operators.[63] 19 20 Two women discussing their work while entering data onto punched cards at Texas A&M in the 1950s
Kitchen maid Pers. The kitchen maid assisted the cook with the preparation of meals and was responsible for numerous cleaning tasks.[26]: 225 [27]: 36  In houses with large domestic staffs she was assisted by the scullery maid. Attitudes to domestic work changed in the late 19th century as other employment opportunities arose.[26]: 171  As domestic staffs shrank the cook would often be retained at the expense of the kitchen maid. 14 20 The kitchen maid by Jean-Baptiste Simeon, 1738
Knocker-up Pers. A knocker-up's job was to rouse sleeping people so they could get to work on time. A knocker-up was often employed to wake up workers on shifts, particularly in factory areas, but was also sometimes self-employed.[37]: 132  As alarm clocks became less expensive and more reliable, there was no longer a need to pay a knocker-up.[64][65] 18 20 Knocker-up (Dutch national archives, 1947)
Lady's companion Pers. A lady's companion was a woman of genteel birth who lived with a woman of rank or wealth. A lady companions usually took up the occupation in order to earn a living[66] and have somewhere to live.[67] The occupation of lady's companion became obsolete because upper-class women no longer primarily stay in the home, and also because of the many other employment opportunities open to modern women. 18 20 Morning Dress for February 1799 for 'Lady's Monthly Museum' England, London, 1799
Lamplighter Pers. Lamplighters toured public streets at dusk, lighting outdoor fixtures by means of a wick on a long pole. At dawn, the lamplighter would return to put them out using a small hook on the same pole. Electric street lighting, which does not require lamplighters, replaced candles and oil and gas lamps. Additionally, gas lighting is more expensive than electric lighting.[68][69] 16 20 Lamp-lighters: The Boston Lamplighter on the job, Boston Herald-Traveler, c. March 1926
Leech collector Trade desc reason 18 20 Leech collectors
Limeburner Manuf. Limeburners loaded, fired, cooled and unloaded a lime kiln in a one-week cycle. The work was physically strenuous and somewhat dangerous as the end-product (lime or CaO) is caustic. Lime was used as a building material. Local small-scale kilns became increasingly unprofitable, and they gradually died out through the 19th century. They were replaced by larger industrial plants with more efficient kilns.[70] -7 20 The limeburners, 1790
Matchgirl Trade desc reason 17 20 Little Neapolitan Match Girl, 1890
Match worker Manuf. desc reason 5 20 The Match-Makers at the East End. Illustration by Herbert Johnson from The Graphic, 20 May 1871. Women working in a match factory in London in 1871
Mudlark Trade desc reason 18 20 Le ravageur (The_mudlark), by Honoré Daumier, 1842
Mule scavenger Manuf. desc reason 18 20 Mule scavenger brushing away under the spinner, 1835
Mute Pers. A mute stood at funerals with a sad, pathetic face. A symbolic protector of the deceased, the mute would wear sombre clothing including a black cloak, a top hat with trailing hatbands, and gloves. Child mutes were present at some Victorian funerals, as described in Dickens's Oliver Twist and Martin Chuzzlewit, but have since fallen out of fashion.[72]. Other types of professional mourners are still employed in some Asian countries. 17 20 Still from the American drama film Oliver Twist (1922) with Jackie Coogan dressed as a mute (page 38 of the May 13, 1922 Exhibitors Herald)
Ninja Profes. desc reason 12 18 Ninja by Hokusai
Oakum picker Manuf. Oakum, a preparation of hemp or jute used to seal gaps, was recycled from old tarry ropes, which were unravelled and reduced to fibre. This activity was a common occupation in prisons and workhouses, where inmates who could not do heavy labour were put to work picking oakum. The Poor Relief Act 1601 had provided for a "convenient stock of Flax, Hemp ... to set the poor on work". The activity became uneconomic as free workhouse labour was phased out and the cost of paid labour exceeded the value of the recycled material.[73][74] 16 19 Picking oakum in jail
Phrenologist Profes. A phrenologist purported to measure bumps on the skull to predict mental traits. This was a rare occupation: for example, there were only 27 phrenologists in England and Wales listed in the 1861 United Kingdom census.[75] Phrenology has now been debunked as pseudoscience. The central phrenological notion that measuring the contour of the skull can predict personality traits has been discredited by empirical research.[11]: 266 [12][76] 18 20 The phrenologist by Archibald Standish Hartrick, The Graphic, January 4, 1895
Pin boy Trade. desc reason 19 20 April 1910: 1:00 A.M. Pin boys working in Subway Bowling Alleys, 65 South St., Brooklyn, New York, Lewis Hine photo
Plague doctor Profes. desc reason 14 17 Doctor Schnabel [i.e Dr. Beak], a plague doctor in seventeenth-century Rome
Postilion Pers. A postilion was a person who guided a horse-drawn coach (or other wheeled vehicle such as a gun carriage) while mounted on a horse.[77] By contrast, a coachman controls the horses from the vehicle itself. As horse-drawn vehicles were replaced by motorized vehicles in the first half of the 20th century the need for postilions was eliminated. A few postilions are still used at occasions of ceremonial importance such as state funerals. 14 20 Harold Septimus Power - Bringing up the guns, 1917
Poundmaster Agric. desc reason 18 19 The poundmaster's van
Powder monkey Profes. desc reason 17 19 Firing of a 18-pound gun; a "powder monkey" at left.
Priest hunter Profes. desc reason 16 19 A depiction of Petrus van Kalmpthout, murdered for refusing to renounce the Catholic faith on 16 April 1572, engraved by Michel Natalis after Abraham van Diepenbeeck
Printer's devil Manuf. desc reason 17 19 Printers Devil public house sign
Privateer Profes. desc reason 16 19 Woodes Rogers' men search Spanish ladies for their jewels in Guayaquil, 1709
Punkah wallah Pers. desc reason 18 20 An anaemic Indian coolie trying to sleep and at the same time cool his British rulers by working a punka
Reeve Profes. desc reason 7 15 The Reeve in the Ellesmere manuscript of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales
Resident minister Profes. desc reason 18 20 Emperor Meiji receives Dutch Minister-Resident Dirk de Graeff van Polsbroek and French Minister-Resident Léon Roches as the first European envoys ever in 1868
Resin worker Manuf. desc reason 16 20 French resin burner
Riding officer Profes. A riding officer patrolled the coast to suppress smuggling. The occupation was uncomfortable, poorly-paid, dangerous, and unpopular with the local people who often supported the smugglers.[41]: 134–6  Riding officers proved to be ineffective at suppressing smuggling. With the reduction in import taxes smuggling declined, and riding officers were phased out in the early 19th century. 17 19 Murder of Mr. William Galley , a Customs-House officer, by smugglers
Samurai Profes. desc reason 12 19 One Hundred Aspects of the Moon #7, Inaba Mountain Moon - The young Toyotomi Hideyoshi leads a small group assaulting the castle on Inaba Mountain; 1885
Sawyer Manuf. A sawyer sawed wood using a pitsaw, either in a saw pit, or with a log on trestles above ground. The sawyer cut lumber to length for the building market (now done more efficiently in a sawmill), and for the consumer market (now often done in a home improvement store).[78]: 60  18 20 Sawyer from The book of trades, or, Library of the useful arts. Part I, 1815
Scribe Profes. desc reason -3 20 Jewish scribes at the Tomb of Ezekiel in Iraq, c. 1914 - Underwood & Underwood - National Geographic v. 26 no. 6 (1914)
Scullery maid Pers. The scullery maid was the lowest in the hierarchy of female servants. She was assigned tasks by the cook and the kitchen maid.[27]: 39  Scullery maids worked long hours and were poorly paid. Other more favourable employment opportunities caused them to leave the occupation.[26]: 188  14 20 Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin: The Scullery Maid, circa 1738
Seneschal Profes. desc reason 12 19 Jean Marie Le Golias de Rosgrand, Seneschal at Brasparts
Slave catcher Profes. desc reason 16 19 An illustration of a slave catcher in Imperial Brazil by German artist Johann Moritz Rugendas
Soda jerk Pers. desc reason 20 20 Soda jerk passing an ice cream soda between two soda fountains, New York City, New York, 1936
Still room maid Pers. The still room maid was a middle-ranking female servant who worked in the still room making foodstuffs, candles, and home remedies. She also prepared and served afternoon tea.[27]: 42  Still room maids were only employed in houses with large staffs. As specialists, they were amongst the first to go as employers downsized to the essentials of butler, housekeeper and cook. 14 20 A stillroom maid (presumably), serving afternoon tea, George Dunlop Leslie, 1865
Stocking weaver Manuf. A stocking weaver made stockings using silk, wool, linen or cotton and was paid on the basis of piece work. Stockings made inexpensively in factories from artificial fabrics (rayon in the 1920s, then nylon in the 1940s) have eliminated the occupation of stocking weaver.[78]: 68 [79] 16 20 Stocking weaver The book of trades, or, Library of the useful arts. Part III 1807
Sutler Trade Vivandière Camp follower reason 17 19 Sutler's tent at the Siege of Petersburg during the American Civil War
Switchboard operator Trade A switchboard operator connected calls by inserting a pair of phone plugs into the appropriate jacks on a manual telephone switchboard. Switchboard operators were gradually phased out and replaced by automated systems, first those allowing direct dialing within a local area, then for long-distance and international direct dialing.[80][81] 19 20 Switchboard operators, 1922
Tallow chandler Manuf. A tallow chandler made and sold tallow candles, which were a less expensive, but lower quality, alternative to wax candles. Tallow candles were replaced first by wax candles and then by electric lighting.[78]: 74 [82][83] 13 20 Tallow-chandler from The book of trades, or, Library of the useful arts. Part II 1811
Telegraph operator Trade A telegraph operator used telegraphy to send and receive messages over long distances. A variety of methods have been employed, such as optical, electrical, wireless (or radio), and reflected sunlight. Competition from the telephone, which had a speed advantage, drove the telegraph into decline from 1920 onwards. The few remaining telegraph applications were largely taken over by alternatives on the internet towards the end of the 20th century.[84][85] 18 20 Radio operator on a sinking ship, with the captain behind him, during the wireless telegraphy era prior to 1920 sending a call for rescue; the letters "SOS"
Thief-taker Pers. desc reason 17 19 Jonathan Wild, the thief-taker, sitting on a cart, is pelted by the mob on his way to Tyburn. Engraving by Valois
Tondenhei Pers. desc reason 19 20 The Emperor Meiji visits a Tondenhei settlement in Yamana Village, now Sapporo, on 1 September 1881; by Takamura Shinpu
Tosher Pers. desc reason 19 20 The Sewer-hunter or ‘Tosher’, 1851
Town crier Pers. desc reason -8 20 Town crier of Provincetown, Massachusetts, in 1909
Water carrier Pers. desc reason 16 20 A water carrier or “bhisti” in India, circa 1870
Wheelwright Manuf. A wheelwright was an artisan who built or repaired spoked wooden wheels.[30] Wheelwrights established associations to control the trade, for example the Worshipful Company of Wheelwrights.[86] In the United Kingdom census there were over 26,000 wheelwrights in 1841,[87] and over 30,000 in 1871.[88] By the late 20th century, wheelwright employment had faded away due to a lack of demand for wooden wheels.[89] -20[Note 2] 20 Wheelwright from The book of trades, or, Library of the useful arts. Part II 1811
Wire-drawer Manuf. A wire-drawer produced metal wires used in further manufacturing processes. The wire-drawer reduced the cross-section of a wire by pulling it through one or more dies. Increasing demand for wire and the development of rolling mills using greater force and higher temperatures made the production of wire by individual wire-drawers uneconomic.[90][91] 9[92] 20 Wire-drawer from The book of trades, or, Library of the useful arts. Part III 1807
Wool comber Manuf. A wool comber cleaned and prepared wool into a state ready for it to be spun into worsted. The wool comber used heated metal combs to comb the wool. The invention of the wool combing machine in the late 18th century and its progressive use in factories rendered manual wool combing inefficient.[78]: 90 [93] -99 19 Wool Comber from The book of trades, or, Library of the useful arts. Part I, 1815

See also

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Category:Obsolete occupations.

Notes

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  1. ^ In early medieval Europe (5th to 10th century), the Byzantine Empire made use of military drums to indicate marching and rowing cadence. Pryor, John H.; Jeffries, Elizabeth M. (2006). The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca 500-1204. Brill. ISBN 978-904740993-9.
  2. ^ Refers to wheels with spokes rather than earlier solid wooden wheels

References

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  1. ^ "Census Reports for Great Britain 1801-1971". University of Portsmouth, Vision of Britain. Retrieved 2024-09-23.
  2. ^ "Comparative Occupation Statistics 1870–1930" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. 1930. Retrieved 2024-09-25.
  3. ^ Autor, David H. (2015-08-01). "Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 29 (3): 3–30. doi:10.1257/jep.29.3.3.
  4. ^ Bix, Amy Sue (2000). Inventing Ourselves Out of Jobs? Americas Debate over Technological Unemployment, 1929- 1981. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 376. ISBN 0-8018-6244-2.
  5. ^ Thompson, E.P. (1963). The Making of the English Working Class. London: Gollancz. p. 851. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
  6. ^ Howard, John (2019-11-01). "Artificial intelligence: Implications for the future of work". American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 62 (11): 917–926. doi:10.1002/ajim.23037. ISSN 0271-3586. PMID 31436850. S2CID 201275028.
  7. ^ "Impact of AI on Jobs: Jobocalypse on the Horizon?". 14 July 2023.
  8. ^ a b Tortora, Phyllis G.; Marcketti, Sara B. (2015). Survey of Historic Costume (6th ed.). Bloomsbury. p. 721. ISBN 978-1-62892-167-0.
  9. ^ Phillips, George Lewis (1949). Climbing Boys: A Study of Sweeps' Apprentices 1772–1875. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
  10. ^ Longmate, Norman (1974). The Workhouse. London: Temple Smith. ISBN 978-0-7126-0637-0. Retrieved 2024-09-11.
  11. ^ a b Williams, William F., ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience. New York: Facts on File, Inc. p. 456. ISBN 0-8160-3351-X.
  12. ^ a b Hines, Terence (2002). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal: a critical examination of the evidence. New York: Prometheus Books. p. 372. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
  13. ^ a b Lemieux, A. M.; Clarke, R. V. (2009). "The International Ban on Ivory Sales and its Effects on Elephant Poaching in Africa". British Journal of Criminology. 49 (4): 451. doi:10.1093/bjc/azp030.
  14. ^ Richardson, Ruth (1989). Death, dissection, and the destitute. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 426. ISBN 9780140228625. Retrieved 2024-09-04.
  15. ^ Allsopp, Kenneth (1961). The Bootleggers: The Story of Chicago's Prohibition Era. Four Square. p. 512. Retrieved 2024-09-04.
  16. ^ "Chapter 2. Comparison of Occupations at the Twelfth and Preceding Censuses" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. 1904. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
  17. ^ Principe, Lawrence M.; Newman, William R. (2001). "Some Problems with the Historiography of Alchemy". In Newman, William R.; Grafton, Anthony (eds.). Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe. MIT Press. pp. 385–432. ISBN 978-0-262-14075-1.
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Further reading

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