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A male Xylocopa virginica (Eastern Carpenter bee) on Redbud (Cercis canadensis)

Bees can suffer serious effects from toxic chemicals in their environments. These include various synthetic chemicals, particularly insecticides, as well as a variety of naturally occurring chemicals from plants, such as ethanol resulting from the fermentation of organic materials. Bee intoxication can result from exposure to ethanol from fermented nectar, ripe fruits, and manmade and natural chemicals in the environment.

The effects of alcohol on bees are sufficiently similar to the effects of alcohol on humans that honey bees have been used as models of human ethanol intoxication. The metabolism of bees and humans is sufficiently different that bees can safely collect nectars from plants that contain compounds toxic to humans. The honey produced by bees from these toxic nectars can be poisonous if consumed by humans. In addition, natural processes can introduce toxic substances into honey produced from nontoxic nectar.

Ethanol

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Effects of intoxication

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Bee showing its proboscis

The introduction of certain chemical substances—such as ethanol or pesticides or defensive toxic biochemicals produced by plants—to a bee's environment can cause the bee to display abnormal or unusual behavior and disorientation. In sufficient quantities, such chemicals can poison and even kill the bee. The effects of alcohol on bees have long been recognized. For example, John Cumming described the effect in an 1864 publication on beekeeping.[1]

When bees become intoxicated from ethanol consumption or poisoned with other chemicals, their balance is affected. Charles Abramson's group at Oklahoma State University has put inebriated bees on running wheels, where they exhibit locomotion difficulties. They also put honey bees in shuttle-boxes that used a stimulus to encourage the bees to move, and found that they were less mobile as they became more intoxicated.[2]

An intoxicated bee often extends its proboscis. Inebriated bees spend more time flying. If a bee is sufficiently intoxicated, it becomes unable to walk. Inebriated bees typically have many more flying accidents. Some bees that consume ethanol become too inebriated to find their way back to the hive, and die as a result.[2] Bozic et al. (2006) found that alcohol consumption by honeybees disrupts foraging and social behaviors, and has some similar effects to poisoning with insecticides.[3] Some bees become more aggressive after consuming alcohol.[4]

Exposure to alcohol can have a prolonged effect on bees, lasting as long as 48 hours.[5] This phenomenon is also observed in fruit flies[6] and is connected to the neurotransmitter octopamine in fruit flies, which is also present in bees.[7]

Bees as ethanol inebriation models

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In 1999, David Sandeman suggested that bee inebriation models may be valuable for understanding vertebrate ethanol intoxication, given the homology and convergence of insect and vertebrate nervous systems.[8]

The bees are fed ethanol solutions and their behavior observed.[2] Researchers place the bees in harnesses, and feed them varying concentrations of alcohol in into sugar solutions.[2][9] Tests of locomotion, foraging, social interaction and aggressiveness are performed; functioning is impaired much as in humans.[9] The interaction of bees with antabuse (disulfiram, a treatment for alcoholism) has been tested as well.[10]

Bee exposure to other toxic and inebriating chemicals

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Synthetic chemicals

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Main article: Pesticide toxicity to bees

Bees can be severely and even fatally affected by pesticides,[11][12][13][14] fertilizers,[15][16][17] copper sulfate (more lethal than spinosad),[18][16] and other chemicals that man has introduced into the environment.[19]

This problem has been the object of growing concern. For example, researchers at the University of Hohenheim are studying how bees can be poisoned by exposure to seed disinfectants.[20] In France, the Ministry of Agriculture commissioned an expert group, the Scientific and Technical Committee for the Multifactorial Study on Bees (CST), to study the intoxicating and sometimes fatal effects of chemicals used in agriculture on bees.[21] Researchers at the Bee Research Institute and the Department of Food Chemistry and Analysis in the Czech Republic have pondered the intoxicating effects of various chemicals used to treat winter rapeseed crops.[22] Romania suffered a severe case of widespread bee intoxication and extensive bee mortality from deltamethrin in 2002.[23] The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published standards for testing chemicals for bee intoxication.[24]

Natural compounds

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Bees can be substantially affected by natural compounds in the environment besides ethanol. For example, Dariusz Szlachetko of the Department of Plant Taxonomy and Nature Conservation, Gdańsk University observed wasps in Poland acting in a very sleepy (possibly inebriated) manner after eating nectar derived from the North American orchid Neottia.[25]

Detzel and Wink (1993) published an extensive review of 63 types of plant allelochemicals and their effects on bees. 39 chemical compounds repelled bees (primarily alkaloids, coumarins, and saponins), while three terpene compounds attracted bees. They report that 17 out of 29 allelochemicals are toxic at some levels (especially alkaloids, saponins, cardiac glycosides and cyanogenic glycosides).[26]

Various plants have pollen toxic to honey bees, in some cases killing the adults, as in Toxicoscordion; in other cases weakening the brood, as in Heliconia. Other plants with toxic pollen include Spathodea campanulata and Ochroma lagopus. Both the pollen and nectar of the California Buckeye (Aesculus californica) are toxic to honeybees.[27]

Bee inebriation in pollination

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Bucket orchid

Some plants rely on using intoxicating chemicals to produce inebriated bees, and use this inebriation as part of their reproductive strategy. One plant that may do this is the South American bucket orchid (Coryanthes sp.), an epiphyte. The bucket orchid attracts male euglossine bees with its scent, derived from a variety of aromatic compounds. The bees store these compounds in specialized spongy pouches inside their swollen hind legs, as they appear to use the scent (or derivatives thereof) in order to attract females. The flower is constructed in such a way as to make the surface almost impossible to cling to, with smooth, downward-pointing hairs; the bees commonly slip and fall into the fluid in the bucket, and the only navigable route out is a narrow, constricting passage that either glues a "pollinium" (a pollen sack) on their body (if the flower has not yet been visited) or removes any pollinium that is there (if the flower has already been visited). The passageway constricts after a bee has entered, and holds it there for a few minutes, allowing the glue to dry and securing the pollinium. It has been suggested that this process may involve inebriation of the bees.[28][29][30][31]

Van der Pijl and Dodson (1966) observed that bees of the genera Eulaema and Xylocopa exhibit symptoms of inebriation after consuming nectar from the orchids Sobralia violacea and Sobralia rosea.[32][33]

Toxic honey

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A number of plants produce alkaloids which can taint honey made from their flowers in different ways. The plant genus Coriaria produces poisonous honey, due to the toxin tutin.[34] Morphine-containing honey has been reported in areas where opium poppy cultivation is widespread.[35] Tecoma stans is a nontoxic plant, but honey from its flowers is poisonous.[36][37] Plants including Rhododendron and heathers (Ericaceae) produce the neurotoxin grayanotoxin. This is toxic to humans but not to bees. Honey from these flowers can be psychoactive, or even toxic to humans.[38] Honey can ferment and produce ethanol. Animals, such as birds, that have eaten honey fermented in the sun can be found intoxicated.[39]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Cumming, John (1864). Bee-keeping, by 'The Times' bee-master. p. 144. bee intoxication.
  2. ^ a b c d Abramson, Charles I.; Stone, Sherril M.; Ortez, Richard A.; Luccardi, Alessandra; Vann, Kyla L.; Hanig, Kate D.; Rice, Justin (August 2000). "The Development of an Ethanol Model Using Social Insects I: Behavior Studies of the Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.)". Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 24 (8): 1153–1166. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2000.tb02078.x. PMID 10968652.
  3. ^ Bozic, Janko; Abramson, Charles I.; Bedencic, Mateja (April 2006). "Reduced ability of ethanol drinkers for social communication in honeybees (Apis mellifera carnica Poll.)". Alcohol. 38 (3): 179–183. doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2006.01.005. PMID 16905444.
  4. ^ Abramson, Charles I.; Place, Aaron J.; Aquino, Italo S.; Fernandez, Andrea (June 2004). "Development of an ethanol model using social insects: IV. Influence of ethanol on the aggression of Africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera L.)". Psychology Reports. 94 (3 Pt 2): 1107–1115. doi:10.2466/pr0.94.3c.1107-1115. PMID 15362379. S2CID 24341827.
  5. ^ Happy Hour Bees , Mythology and Mead, Carolyn Smagalski, BellaOnline, The Voice of Women, 2007 describes a prolonged effect from ethanol consumption by honey bees as similar to a "hangover".
  6. ^ Ulrike Heberlein's group at University of California, San Francisco has used fruit flies as models of human inebriation and even identified genes that seem to be responsible for alcohol tolerance accumulation (believed to be associated with veisalgia, or hangover), and produced genetically engineered strains that do not develop alcohol tolerance
    Moore, Monica S.; DeZazzo, Jim; Luk, Alvin Y.; Tully, Tim; Singh, Carol M.; Heberlein, Ulrike (1998). "Ethanol Intoxication in Drosophila: Genetic and Pharmacological Evidence for Regulation by the cAMP Signaling Pathway". Cell. 93 (6): 997–1007. doi:10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81205-2.
    Tecott, Laurence H.; Heberlein, Ulrike (1998). "Y Do We Drink?". Cell. 95 (6): 733–735. doi:10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81695-5. ISSN 0092-8674.
  7. ^ Degen, Joern; Gewecke, Michael; Roeder, Thomas (2000). "Octopamine receptors in the honey bee and locust nervous system: pharmacological similarities between homologous receptors of distantly related species". British Journal of Pharmacology. 130 (3). Wiley: 587–594. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0703338. ISSN 0007-1188.
  8. ^ Sandeman, David (3 August 1999). "Homology and Convergence in Vertebrate and Invertebrate Nervous Systems". Naturwissenschaften. 86 (8): 378–387. Bibcode:1999NW.....86..378S. doi:10.1007/s001140050637. PMID 10481825.
  9. ^ a b Intoxicated Honey Bees May Clue Scientists Into Drunken Human Behavior, Science Daily, October 25, 2004
  10. ^ Abramson, Charles I.; Fellows, Gina W.; Browne, Blaine L.; Lawson, Adam; Ortiz, Richard A. (2003). "Development of an Ethanol Model Using Social Insects: II. Effect of Antabuse® on Consumatory Responses and Learned Behavior of the Honey Bee (Apis Mellifera L.)". Psychological Reports. 92 (2): 365–378. doi:10.2466/pr0.2003.92.2.365.
  11. ^ "Bees can sense a flower's electric field—unless fertilizer messes with the buzz". Popular Science. 9 November 2022. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
  12. ^ "Bees Can Sense the Electric Fields of Flowers". nationalgeographic.com. 21 February 2013. Archived from the original on February 28, 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
  13. ^ Kakumanu, Madhavi L.; Reeves, Alison M.; Anderson, Troy D.; Rodrigues, Richard R.; Williams, Mark A. (16 August 2016). "Honey Bee Gut Microbiome Is Altered by In-Hive Pesticide Exposures". Frontiers in Microbiology. 7: 1255. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.01255. PMC 4985556. PMID 27579024.
  14. ^ Graham, Flora (31 January 2020). "Daily briefing: Genetically engineered gut microbes can protect honey bees". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-00282-3. S2CID 242243957.
  15. ^ Chorbinski, P.; Tomaszewska, B. (1995). "Toksyczność nawozów mineralnych dla pszczół w warunkach laboratoryjnych. Cz.I. Toksyczność mocznika i saletry amonowej" [Toxicity of mineral fertilizers to honey bees under laboratory conditions. Pt. 1. Toxicity of urea and ammonium sulphate]. Pszczelnicze Zeszyty Naukowe (in Polish). 39 (2): 79–86.
  16. ^ a b Rodrigues, Cleiton G.; Krüger, Alexandra P.; Barbosa, Wagner F.; Guedes, Raul Narciso C. (June 2016). "Leaf Fertilizers Affect Survival and Behavior of the Neotropical Stingless Bee Friesella schrottkyi (Meliponini: Apidae: Hymenoptera)". Journal of Economic Entomology. 109 (3): 1001–1008. doi:10.1093/jee/tow044. PMID 27069099.
  17. ^ Hunting, Ellard R.; England, Sam J.; Koh, Kuang; Lawson, Dave A.; Brun, Nadja R.; Robert, Daniel (9 November 2022). "Synthetic fertilizers alter floral biophysical cues and bumblebee foraging behavior". PNAS Nexus. 1 (5): pgac230. doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac230. PMC 9802097. PMID 36712354.
  18. ^ Kava, Ruth (21 April 2016). "Organic Fertilizer Is Great at Killing Bees". American Council on Science and Health. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
  19. ^ Tosi, Simone; Costa, Cecilia; Vesco, Umberto; Quaglia, Giancarlo; Guido, Giovanni (2018). "A survey of honey bee-collected pollen reveals widespread contamination by agricultural pesticides". Science of the Total Environment. 615: 208–218. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.226. PMID 28968582. S2CID 19956612.
  20. ^ "Honey bee intoxication caused by seed disinfectants", Dr.sc.agr. Klaus Wallner, University of Hohenheim. Accessed on July 17, 2009.
  21. ^ Recent Issues Related to Bee Troubles in France Archived 2007-10-04 at the Wayback Machine, J.N. Tasei, report to International Apis Health Assessment Committee (IAHAC), Bologna, Italy, May 6, 2004. This report included the results of a study of the toxic effects on bees of the seed dressings imidacloprid and fipronil.
  22. ^ Kamler, František; Titěra, Dalibor; Piškulová, Jiřina; Hajšlová, Jana; Maštovská, Kateřina (2003). "Intoxication of honeybees on chemical treated winter rape: problem of its verification" (PDF). Bulletin of Insectology. 56 (1): 125–7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-23.
  23. ^ Nica, Daniela; Bianu, Elisabeta; Chioveanu, Gabriela (2004). "A case of acute intoxication with deltamethrin in bee colonies in Romania" (PDF). Apiacta. 39: 71–7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-27.
  24. ^ Ecological Effects Test Guidelines OPPTS 850.3030: Honey Bee Toxicity of Residues on Foliage[permanent dead link], EPA 712–C–96–148 April 1996.
  25. ^ Cingel, Nelis A. (2001). An atlas of orchid pollination: America, Africa, Asia and Australia. CRC Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-90-5410-486-5.
  26. ^ Detzel, Andreas; Wink, Michael (March 1993). "Attraction, deterrence or intoxication of bees (Apis mellifera) by plant allelochemicals". Chemoecology. 4 (1): 8–18. Bibcode:1993Checo...4....8D. doi:10.1007/BF01245891. S2CID 27701294.
  27. ^ "School Native Plant Gardens and Nature Areas". California Native Plant Society. Archived from the original on August 17, 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-26.
  28. ^ Dodson, Calaway; Frymire, G. (November 1961). "Natural Pollination of Orchids". Missouri Botanical Garden Bulletin. 49 (9): 133–152.
  29. ^ Jolivet, Pierre (1998). Interrelationship Between Insects and Plants. CRC Press. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-57444-052-2. The first hymenopteran to visit has difficulties coping with the rostrellum but the later ones to arrive easily escape, soaked, drunk, and often having completed their pollinating function.
  30. ^ bumblebee.org article on Hymenoptera
  31. ^ Agosta, William C. (2001). Thieves, Deceivers, and Killers: tales of chemistry in nature. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00488-4.
  32. ^ Cingel, Nelis A. (2001). An atlas of orchid pollination: America, Africa, Asia and Australia. CRC Press. ISBN 978-90-5410-486-5.
  33. ^ Van der Pijl, Leendert; Dodson, Calaway H. (1966). Orchid Flowers Their Pollination and Evolution. University of Miami Press. ISBN 978-0-87024-069-0.
  34. ^ "Background on toxic honey". New Zealand Food Safety Authority. Retrieved 12 October 2024.
  35. ^ McAlpine, Alistair (2002). Adventures of a Collector. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-86508-786-3.
  36. ^ Anand, Mukul; Basavaraju, R. (January 2021). "A review on phytochemistry and pharmacological uses of Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 265: 113270. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2020.113270. PMID 32822823.
  37. ^ Pallavi, K.; Vishnavi, B.; Mamatha; Prakash, K. Vanitha; Amruthapriyanka, A. (2014). "Phytochemical investigation and anti-microbial activity of Tecoma stans". World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 3 (2): 2070–2083.
  38. ^ Jansen, Suze A.; Kleerekooper, Iris; Hofman, Zonne L. M.; Kappen, Isabelle F. P. M.; Stary-Weinzinger, Anna; van der Heyden, Marcel A. G. (19 April 2012). "Grayanotoxin Poisoning: 'Mad Honey Disease' and Beyond". Cardiovascular Toxicology. 12 (3). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 208–215. doi:10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2.
  39. ^ Kettlewell, B.D. (February 1945). "A Story of Nature's Debauch". The Entomologist. 88 (1101): 45–47.

Further reading

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